Principal characteristics of the weberian ideal type bureaucracy- roles of power and authority.

Principal characteristics of the weberian ideal type bureaucracy- roles of power and authority. INTRODUCTION Bureaucracy has been studied for a long time now and many organizations have adopted this model in the day to day running of their organization. The aim of this essay is to explore the â€Å"Ideal type† bureaucracy developed by Max Weber, its characteristics, the role of power and authority on it and its strengths and weaknesses. Firstly we would look at various definitions of bureaucracy drawn from other writers. Bureaucracy in its ideal form is a â€Å"rationalized moral alternative to the common practices of nepotism and other abuses of power that were rampant in the feudal preindustrial world from which the modern industrial organization emerged† (Hatch, 2006, p. 105). Bureaucracies rely on combination of rules, procedures, documentation and behavioral monitoring to achieve control and seek to place a standard on behavior and the reward for compliance with established rules and regulation (Hatch, 2006, p. 117).   Bureaucracy can be seen as a primary drive through which rationality is used as an instrument within the modern society so as to exclude alternative criteria for action. (Du Gay, 2000, p. 38). Bureaucracy as a concept has come a long way, beginning from France in the eighteenth century. It originates from the French word for an office â€Å"bureau† rule of the bureau. In the 19th century, Germany experienced great success in its use; it was used in both its armed forces and civil administration (Clegg, Kornberger, Tyrone, 2008). Weber discovered that the modernity of Germany was made possible mainly because of the discipline of bureaucracy .It was used in the military to exhibit discipline, using acts such as â€Å"goose stepping†, it assured the generals of the complete obedience of their recruits to order, and for civilians it meant that the men were drilled like machines to eliminate insubordination and individualism (Clegg, Kornberger, Tyrone, 2008, p. 46) . As modern industrial organizations emerged in Germany they incorporated some of this form of ruling and it was a success, by the 20th century it became popular, the United States increasingly starte d adopting it for modern management, especially after the World War 1 when they noticed that the German economy had significantly improved. Bureaucratic forms were also developed internationally as a superstructure on a rationalized basis produced by systems such as that of Fredrick Taylor; these rational superstructures triggered Webers productive research inquiries into the nature of rationality, rules and bureaucracy (Clegg, Kornberger, Tyrone, 2008, p. 46). Webers view of bureaucracy was as an instrument of unrivaled technical superiority, he wrote that precision, speed and clarity, knowledge of files, continuity, discretion, unity, strict subordination, reduction of friction and material and personal cost are raised to the optimum point in the strictly bureaucratic administration; Bureaucracy was a rational machine and was based on how peoples in an organization use the rules of an organization as an everyday guide to management (Clegg, Kornberger, Tyrone, 2008, p. 46). Bureaucracy is supposed to be a system of administration continuously executed by trained professionals following set rules; according to Weber, system administration has to meet all the characteristics of a bureaucracy before it can be called one (Beetham, 1996, p. 10). Examples of everyday bureaucracies include the Armed forces and Corporations such as General motors and NASA. Weber explained that the closer a company is to his model, the more efficient it was likely to become. Bureaucratic control depends upon the existence of a legitimized hierarchy of authority to administer the bureaucratic mechanisms and closely supervise and direct subordinates (Beetham, 1996, p. 13).   It is argued that â€Å"Weber failed to recognize the ambivalent character of bureaucracy, partly because studies of organization were in their infancy in the early decades of the century and also because his ideas were unduly influenced by Prussian army and the Taylorian system† (Beetham, 1996, p. 13 ). It can also be argued that bureaucracy is gradually being replaced due to requirements of entrepreneurial development which gives room for individual innovations (Casey 2004, p.59). Bureaucracy as an important aspect of rationalizing modernity still endures because some certain characteristics of bureaucracy cannot be avoided in order for an efficient and effective running of an organization. Its aim is to prevent forces of unreason, disorder and disorganization (Casey 2004, p.60) Webers theory of bureaucracy developed out of a general theory of power domination which is explained later on in the essay. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WEBERIAN â€Å"IDEAL TYPE† BUREAUCRACY Weber used the term â€Å"Ideal† in the sense of a pure idea, something that can only be imagined rather than in a perfect situation ,it   provides a foundation for theorizing because they are abstract they cannot be expected to exist in the world around us (Hatch, 2006, p. 102) .The ideal bureaucracy that Weber imagined was a means for turning employees of average ability into rational decision makers, serving their   customers with impartiality and efficiency; This bureaucratic form promised reliable decision making, merit based selection , promotion, impersonality and impartiality and therefore fair application of rules (Hatch, 2006, p. 102). Webers ‘ideal type theory offered the following characteristics outlined below: A fixed division of labour: The central feature of bureaucracy is division of labour coordinated under a centralized hierarchy of command. It creates interdependencies in an organization which is managed mainly through hierarchy of authority and standardizing rules and procedures and supported by documenting procedures, regulations, rules and other prescriptions (Walton, 2005, p. 573) A clearly defined hierarchy: Each office has its own clearly defined responsibility and competence. Hierarchical structures improve coordination by restricting free-flowing communications within components (Walton, 2005, p. 573). The hierarchy that workers are subject to at the workplace, Weber argued was required by the organization with complex technical and production processes, it is therefore required to coordinate division of labour (Beetham, 1996, p. 56). Bureaucracy is characterized by expertise because candidates for office are selected on the basis of merit and qualification, and Promotion is guaranteed according to seniority of achievement, and rewarded by fixed salaries paid in money (Hatch, 2006, p. 102).On employment, the office is the primary occupation of the employee and the employee looks forward to a long life career in the organization, and this promotes continuity in an organization (Hatch, 2006, p. 102). Official work is to be separate from ownership of the means of administration; this implies impersonality and Impartiality (Hatch, 2006, p. 102). Work is conducted according to set rules without â€Å"arbitrariness and favoritism† (Beetham, 1996, p. 9) everybody would be treated equally by the books. A set of general rules governing the performance of offices, strict discipline and control in the conduct of the office is expected. Rules, documents and filing is the order of the day as they govern official decision making and action. When we think of bureaucracy, we often think of ‘red tape the strict adherence to formalities (Hatch, 2006, p. 102). Therefore bureaucracy is characterized by high formalization ROLES OF POWER AND AUTHORITY IN THE WEBERIAN IDEAL TYPE BUREAUCRACY Weber sees the rule of man over man in the society as an inevitable historical phenomenon; he distinguished between power and rule stating that the former hinges on having ones way in a social relationship and the latter as getting things done through specific channels persons (Warner, 2007, p. 1024). Authority is a source of power; other sources of power include personal character, expertise, coercion, control; one main difference between authority and other sources of power is that the exercise of authority is directed downward in organizations while the exercise of other forms of power may work in all directions (Hatch, 2006, p. 254). Authority particularly stands out because it is associated with hierarchy, part of the social structure of organizations (Hatch, 2006, p. 254). Weber believed that in a bureaucratic organization members adhere to the rules of that organization, he contrasted three types of authority namely (Clegg, Kornberger, Tyrone, 2008, pp. 46-48): Charismatic authority: when respect and obedience will be given because of the extraordinary attractiveness, popularity and power of a person. The person is owed homage because of his or her capacity to project personal qualities; people follow them because of what they believe to be the special nature of their personalities and the success they have achieved. E.g. Princess Diana, Mother Theresa and Nelson Mandela Traditional authority: occurs where respect and obedience are owed because the person who holds it by birthright. Prince Charles, for instance is not so much an authority because of his charisma, but because of tradition. Rational-legal authority signifies that respect and obedience are owed not to the person or the title they hold but to the role they fill. It is the office respected and not the officer because it is a part of a rational and recognized disposition of relationships in a structure of offices. For instance, a   police officer is respected because of the office he represents and individuals would act rationally by obeying the rules of this office because of the consequences of not obeying .Webers view of bureaucracy was a   tool for unequaled technical advantage. He wrote that â€Å"†¦precision, speed and unambiguity, knowledge of files , continuity , discretion, unity , strict subordination, reduction of friction and material and personal cost are raised to an optimum point in the strictly bureaucratic administration†. Bureaucracy was a rational machine. The outcome of this process of rationalization, Weber suggests is the production of a new type of person: the speciali st (Clegg, Kornberger, Tyrone, 2008). Things may be done in formally and substantive rational ways, the difference between the two is that the former involves precise techniques of calculation such as those developed to measure technical efficiency or to track costs while the latter refers to the reason for rational action, that is, its meaning and value (Hatch, 2006); He warned that formal rationalization without substantive rationalization would lead to ‘iron cage† which Weber described as the dark side of bureaucracy. The drive for rationality, calculation and control may increase efficiency but also trap an individual in an iron cage that chokes creativity and free will. The charismatic and legal forms of authority may coexist in an organization for example an employee may respect his immediate supervisor because of his charisma and the way he does his work and may decide to make him his mentor, even though they both are subordinates in the same organization(Hunt M icheal, 1983). Rational-legal precepts, is exactly what Weber identified as the heart of bureaucratic organizations. People obey orders rationally because they believe that the person giving the order is acting in accordance with a code of legal rules and regulations.For Weber, the modern organization differed from other forms of organization because of its rationalization of authority and legality; The rational-legal bureaucrat was similarly characterized by technical and professional expertise (Casey,2004 p.65). WEAKNESSES OF THE BUREAUCRATIC FORM OF ORGANIZATION Bureaucracy has to a large extent contributed immensely to the growth of modern organization and in its contributions lays some weaknesses that result from the application of its features in the following paragraphs. Bureaucracy is characterized by high formalization which is defined as the degree to which rules procedures, regulations and communications are written and filed (Walton, 2005, p. 570) .Everything should be done by the book and this leads to the feeling of impersonality often associated with bureaucratic organizations that does not allow employees to be committed emotionally to the pursuit of economic efficiency, which is the overall goal of the organization; it restricts them because of culture of impersonality and detachment (Stokes Clegg, 2002, p. 227). Employees must share a managerial vision of their organizations culture and be prepared to go an extra mile to achieve it, not just to following rules, rules should be bent sometimes to ensure that a desired outcome is achieved, there is a limit to how much of your work you can rely on policy and guideline (Clegg, Kornberger, Tyrone, 2008, p. 88). Therefore, Bureaucracy strangles individualism because everything has to be done in a machine-like manner. Webers model of organization efficiency assumes that aspects of individual personality which are not relevant to the strict performance of employees duties would be removed as they enter the organization (Beetham, 1996, p. 13). In practice, people come into an organization with personal needs and expect to seek satisfaction to an extent through social interaction at workplace, the manner this interactions are dealt with at work can be crucial to the performance of the employee. Authority which ignores these factors is likely to meet resistance because people cannot be compelled to work efficiently or with commitment (Beetham, 1996, p. 14). When this resistance surfaces, there is likely to be conflict in the organization which may disrupt organizational goals. Promotion is based on merit ; unqualified personnel may keep getting promoted on seniority bases because the organization may think they merit the promotion because of how long they have stayed (Casey, 2009).In this case, they may not be actually qualified for the promotion given that division of labour encourages specialization because of the standardization of production process. They may have deep knowledge for a particular skill, but not other skills that they may require for higher level.   Division of labor can then lead to a situation where an employee cannot do anything than other than what he is trained to do and finds it impossible to operate in a different situation, because of inflexibility. This impedes self development of employees (Casey, 2009) and limits creativity. Communication comes in one direction because of the hierarchical structure; some information may need to be passed from grassroots upwards sometimes so that employers can get from employees feedback vital for growth of an organization, a hierarchy may suffer from too much information as well as little information (Beetham, 1996, p. 14).A less hierarchical structure may be more flexible. Goals may become displaced in bureaucracy because of strict adherence to rules, because the aims of the organization become identified with following the rules that are only intended as means to achieving goals (Clegg, Kornberger, Tyrone, 2008, p. 89).When this happens it also disrupts the overall aim and objectives of the organization. For example, if a schools departments aim is to ensure that the students in class understand the lectures and graduate with good grades. In order to achieve that, the students attendance in class would be very necessary but if a lecturer uses half an hour to count the students in class and write attendance, it becomes a displaced goal because the time used in counting the number of students in class can be used to teach them more effectively. Therefore, these weaknesses discussed have a tendency to become vast, cumbersome, slow and rigid, reduced efficiency because of following usual protocol, not enough freedom of movement, over compliance etc (Casey 2009). STRENGTHS OF THE BUREAUCRATIC FORM OF ORGANIZATION Strength of bureaucracy becomes more evident in stable environments with compliant employees (Morgan, 1995, p. 29). Authority and responsibility are clearly defined due to hierarchy and division of labour (Casey 2009) and when it is defined there is unity of command which leads to efficiency because employees know who instructs and what to do because there is free flowing communication in the sense that information is not muddled up and there is no confusion because information is centralized and comes from one source, flows from upward downward. Bureaucracy is a wall for civil freedom. (Clegg, Kornberger, Tyrone, 2008, p. 67). There is fairness and impartiality in bureaucracy (Casey 2009), all employees are treated in the same way, and they do not have to worry about impartiality, unless of course if politics arises in the organization and it starts to affect the rules of the book. You have the right to appeal in bureaucracy if the rules applied are illegitimate; no one is above the law, none could escape rules, and every officer was accountable for what they do because they have specialized tasks, work done is easily traced to who did it. Technical and formal efficiency i.e. expertise of office holders (Casey 2009), standardization of processes brings about efficiency, in that every process is done at the time it is supposed to be done, just as efficiently as machines. Personnel selection and promotion based on expertise and merit, rational-legal authority does not go through the rigorous process of finding another leader in case one is lost, there are endless supplies of people to whom it can give authority because it can make rational choices on the basis of superior leadership and merit (Casey 2009), specialization promotes this expertise which retains knowledge and deep understanding of a particular field. (Casey 2009). CONCLUSION This essay explores the Weberian ideal type bureaucracy, we look at different definitions of it, characteristics, the role power and authority has to play, by focusing on the rational-legal type of authority which is the heart of bureaucracy. We also analyzed the strengths and weaknesses that can be encountered in the use of this model. Webers work made a significant impact on the development in the study of organizations and management. Bureaucracy has been socially institutionalized and used globally. It is considered by some to be stuffy and regimented for example employees taking their breaks at assigned times, dress code specified etc (Daft, 2004, p. 239). However an organization may end up with a term called â€Å"mock bureaucracy â€Å"where the rules are seen as an external regulation that can be ignored on purpose, neither managements nor workers values are aligned with the rules so they are widely regarded as lacking legitimacy; everyone knows the rules and yet decides not to take it seriously, implementing tighter controls may result in resistance and employees become rebels† (Clegg, Kornberger, Tyrone, 2008, p. 90). The interpretations of the rules have to change in this case and managing organization is less about knowing what the rules are, and more about managing the meaning. In recent times where the world is taking a more entrepreneurial approach in organization, the Weberian Ideal form of Bureaucracy may not exist in absolute form, because of the changing environment. The need for innovation is very key; an organization may set up a different department for innovation and the other tasks are shared accordingly (Clegg, Kornberger, Tyrone, 2008, p. 93). Red tape and rigidities, we may say we now live in partly post bureaucratic times where a concern with efficiency predominates over issues of equity and justice. Organizations have become more modern equipments, machines and computers now replace files, a database can be drawn up and important records can also be kept there. In essence bureaucracy cannot be absolutely eliminated in as much as some people detest this model; it exists in organizations in different ways of different units for example in a university it may exist in the admissions department, Exams and records departments and so on. It would be hard to imagine a university without the consistent application of rules. There are no organizations that do not have some sort of rules after all, and all organizations are (at least partly) bureaucratic.

A Bill for the Minorities

Racial discrimination had been the subject of debate in the congress for a long time. Often times, members of the congress question the extent of efficiency of execution of the law regarding racial discrimination among the citizens of the United States. The minorities (specifically the blacks) were more likely to be isolated from the native whites.The minorities had been somewhat deprived of certain rights which the whites chiefly enjoy. However, this discrimination set between the minorities and the whites had been resolved through the Civil Rights Act of 1964 originally proposed by the late President John F.  Kennedy.The bill was not officially pursued by the mentioned President because of his assassination. His Vice President, Lyndon Johnson who took his place as president, then signed the law (Civil Rights Act of 1964) on July 2, 1964. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 favored most minorities thus giving them equal opportunity in terms of job, education and other services as that of the whites. As stated in the opening paragraph of the bill, it is an Act:â€Å"To enforce the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the United States to provide injunctive relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the attorney General to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education, to extend the Commission on Civil Rights, to prevent discrimination in federally assisted programs, to establish a Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity, and for other purposes (Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 1997).† The law ‘protects individuals against employment discrimination on the basis of race and color as well as national origin, sex, or religion’ (Facts about Race/Color Discrimination, 2002). Rise of the Minorities Equal imposition of rights on employment, education, voting, and other services provided by the State brought the minorities to a r ise. The provision of the 1964 Act brings forth the protection of several classes including ‘race, color, sex, creed, and age’ (The National Archives, archives.gov). President Kennedy’s aim to end discrimination among the people living in the state causes a reverse condition. In order to go behind with the rules set by the law, some institutions are making policies which are basically incline to favor minorities more than the white Americans. This scenario can be reflected in campus premises. Granting of scholarships to students on the basis of financial needs encouraged the diversity of minorities in the school premises to increase (Education, 1990).In addition, since most families belonging to the minority groups received minimal amount of income, the scholarships provided will be in no doubt be granted to their children. Title IV of the 1964 Civil Rights Act deals about the desegration of public education which states that survey concerning the lack of availab ility of â€Å"equal educational opportunities for individuals by reason of race, color, religion, or national origin in public educational institutions at all levels in the United States must be thoroughly conducted and reported (Civil rights Act 1964).† Institutions granting scholarships seem to misapprehend the statement mentioned above. ‘Equal educational opportunities’ should be granted fairly to all individuals not only to few numbers of people thus having this basis is considered as illegal and clearly violates the law. Furthermore, it can be clearly reflected that minorities were the most favored in this scenario. The scenario in the learning place proves that the civil rights act of 1964 was indeed the most far-reaching and effective piece of legislation regarding minorities in American history.In an article cited in ‘the 1964 Civil Rights Act to the Present,’ it is said that ‘integration of southern districts was progressing, black co llege students were enrolling in previously white colleges are at a greater rate. ’ Thus, such integration provided both the minorities and the whites to have equal access to sophisticated facilities and obtain same degree of education. Minorities also benefited in terms of employment upon the approval of the bill. Discrimination in hiring personnel for a job was completely eliminated.The law addresses employers to set aside factors including race, gender, sex, etc in hiring, promotion as well as termination of individuals in the job. Even in the political arena, the minorities had gained their right to be elected. Some of the African Americans who were elected as public officers were Edward Brooke, Carl Stokes, Douglas Wilder and Gen. Colin Powell (The 1964 Civil Rights Act to the Present). Conclusion Truly, the Civil Rights Act pioneered by the late President John F. Kennedy marks a change in the American society.Most of the minorities at present times are enjoying privileg es which they were deprived before. The integration between the whites and the minorities resulted in the success of a number of blacks in the facets of business, education, government and other fields. The affirmative action taken into account by policy makers put an end on the severe discrimination experienced by the minorities. However, this change in the American society also opens the idea of reverse discrimination between the whites and the non-whites.The imposition of the equal rights between the two classes had advance the liberty of the minorities but in contrary infringe the liberty of the whites. Racial discrimination must be looked at in both ways. It is unjust to only consider the minorities as the victims of discrimination and is being deprive of certain rights. As for what is happening at present times, it can be reflected that the aim of the proponents of the bill to end discrimination was somehow ineffective.The law seems to focus its eyes to the protection of the m inorities while concerns regarding the whites had been somewhat taken for granted thus, equality between the two classes should be fairly treated and address in the congress. Work Cited EEOC, US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (1997, January 15). Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Retrieved May 26, 2008, from http://www. eeoc. gov/policy/vii. html. The National Archives, archives. gov. Teaching with Documents: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.Retrieved May 26, 2008, from http://www. archives. gov/education/lessons/civil-rights-act/. Historical documents. com. Civil Rights Act (1964). Retrieved May 26, 2008, from http://www. historicaldocuments. com/CivilRightsAct1964. htm. The 1964 Civil Rights Act to the Present. Retrieved May 26, 2008, from http://www. infoplease. com/ce6/history/A0858852. html. The New York Times. (2008, May 25) Education. Retrieved May 26, 2008, from http://query. nytimes. com/gst/fullpage. html? res=9 C0CE7D8133FF930A25751C1A966958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all. .

First Person Essay Topics - the Conspiracy

First Person Essay Topics - the Conspiracy The Unexpected Truth About First Person Essay Topics The essay is easily among the most troublesome sections of the college application procedure. You'll locate information that shines with brilliance and you will see a good deal of unnecessary particulars. The topics may vary, but they all are geared toward supplying the information about a student's potential. Curriculum proposal topics is a means to try. Facts, Fiction and First Person Essay Topics It's possible to write a very simple essay on the proper age to vote or appropriate age to be in a position to purchase alcohol. Allow it to be simple for them to comprehend what it is that you're speaking about without throwing an excessive amount of information simultaneously. Topics like death and divorce are cautionary since they can be exceedingly tricky to write about. 2 minutes is longer than you believe! Here's What I Know About First Person Essay Topics Somehow, it's eve n more difficult to choose an essay topic, as you have to abide by reflective or narrative style, and you've got no decision. The introductory portion of the essay should have a strong thesis statement that outlines the principal thoughts and arguments of your essay. An essay was defined in an assortment of means. Descriptive essay example about an individual. You might find that lots of the topics can be adapted to suit almost any type of writing assignment. Essay topics for college needs to be paid a specific attention to. College application essay topics are an essential portion of an entertaining and compelling bit of writing. Taking into account that lots of persuasive essays concern controversial topics, before writing, you can want to sit down and think of what your opinion on the topic actually is. Please don't make the error of assuming that you'll be in a position to just crank out your essay, simply because you're acquainted with the story. Compose a narrative utilizing the role you've chosen as the primary character in your story. Following that, you should demonstrate that you're ready to think beyond the box and be sure your story will touch the hearts of the readers. Continue reading for more tips about how to compose a wonderful college essay, even when you don't feel you've got anything interesting to write about. There's a plethora of great college application essay topics that you're able to select for your paper. If you're applying to a college that doesn't accept the Common App, you will have to answer their precise essay questions. In some instances, the college will supply an essay topic for you. First Person Essay Topics at a Glance Whatever college essay topic you select or are assigned, the secret is to compose a superior stand-out essay. The summary ought to be very different from the conventional summaries as it ought to be very solid. It is difficult to locate a terrific website with free examples of argumentative papers and affordable custom made essays. Apa american psychological association style is among the most widespread academic formats when it has to do with writing research papers. It is very important to keep in mind that much in regards to the personal essay format is all about prosperous storytelling. Although it is obvious for a narrative essay, it might be unclear why one needs to offer enough details for a persuasive or perhaps a process essay, alongside with the rest of the types. So without further ado, below are some effective writing tips to produce your common app essay stick out! When prior brainstorming is finished, you might begin drafting your essay. Reflective essay topics are rather popular, too. Essays could possibly be lightly modified for readability or to defend the anonymity of contributors, but we don't edit essay examples before publication. So, be judicious in regards to the information which you opt to put in your narrative essay. Stephen's essay is quite effective. The Basic Facts of First Person Essay Topics Suddenly, you're in a brand-new situation, and will need to do something, but you need zero idea what. Take into consideration your feelings about the circumstance, how it affected you and what you learned from the experience instead of just simply recalling the circumstance or the individual you lost. If you are experiencing a hard time creating an appropriate topic idea, consider focusing on the emotional state of the individuals you're studying. Above all, you ought to be in a position to describe how it has changed you from the sort of person you were to the better person that you're now.

What Are Austin Stone and Austin Limestone

Austin Stone is a type of masonry material named after the limestone rock quarries in Austin, Texas. On older homes, natural Austin stone is set in orderly rows or irregular patterns. On newer buildings, the neo-Austin Stone is often a man-made material manufactured from Portland cement, lightweight natural aggregates, and iron oxide pigments. This imitation stone is frequently applied as a veneer. Today the name implies a uniformly white-colored stone or stone-like material — a generic term for the pure white limestone once associated with this Texas town in the 19th century. The Comal County Courthouse in New Braunfels, Texas between Austin and San Antonio is a good example of a public building made of native limestone. The pitch-faced, rusticated texture was common to the Romanesque Revival style of the 1898 period. The construction material provides a clean, sanitary look for both interiors and exteriors. Often, residential exteriors combine areas of stone with areas of wood siding. Comal County Courthouse, 1898, New Braunfels, Texas. The Lyda Hill Texas Collection of Photographs in Carol M. Highsmiths America Project, Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division (cropped) Texas Limestone Austin stone is a kind of look by manufacturers of synthetic stone, produced to appear as if it is real stone cut from the pure white limestone quarries of Texas. Lime was big business in Central Texas, writes Austin columnist Michael Barnes. Limestone quarries supplied construction materials for a growing nations buildings from the mid-1800s until well into the 20th century. Quarries can cut stone to most any size, blocks or thin. Austin white limestone — along with other color variations — can be finished rough, called rusticated, or sawed, or smooth and finely dressed, dubbed ashlar. Veneerstone Austin Stone Texas Cream Color. Veneerstone LLC Cast stone as opposed to cut stone is the more popular choice at home improvement stores like The Home Depot. Veneerstone supplies a variety of colors of Austin stone composites. To cast means that the cement mixture is put into a mold that is created from actual cut stones. The resulting material is only about 1.5 inches thick — to be used decoratively, but not structurally. This construction material has been around long enough that Historic Preservation Brief 42 is dedicated to help us understand how to preserve it. While the term artificial stone was commonly used in the 19th century, preservationist Richard Pieper writes, concrete stone, cast stone, and cut cast stone replaced it in the early 20th century. In addition, Coignet Stone, Frear Stone, and Ransome Stone were all names of proprietary systems for pre-cast concrete building units.... The Australian building supply company Boral Limited has a trademark on the name Cultured Stone for their Austin stone products. Cultured Stone ® Cobblefield ® Texas Cream Color. Boral Limited Although Austin Stone may never have been a limestone color, the name has become descriptive of a white, pure limestone. Like paint colors, stone fabricators like to introduce new hues to their products — or at least new names. What may have been Austin Stone one year might be Texas Cream the next. Other names include creamy limestone and Chardonnay. Austin stone is often in the white/yellow category compared with white/grey hues sometimes called glacier. Other color names may include Rattlesnake, Texas Mix, Nicotine, Tumbleweed, and Sunflower. One can use imagination to give a descriptive stone palette name to a yellow tint. Texas quarries still do the business of cutting stone. Since 1888, Austin White Lime Company has been a supplier of quicklime plaster, a calcium oxide substance that results from heating high quality, pure limestone. Since 1929, Texas Quarries has been quarrying and fabricating (e.g., sawing large blocks to various sizes) Texas limestone. We quarry and fabricate limestone indigenous to Texas, the company proudly claims: Cordova Cream and Cordova Shell from the Hill Country; Lueders Buff, Gray, and Roughback from the Abilene area. Cordova and Lueders are more general place names, like Austin. The family-owned Texas Stone Quarries includes Cedar Hill Cream limestone and Hadrian limestone. Limestone containing the shells of sea creatures (sometimes called shellstone or shell limestone) is popular for upscale coastal communities, such as some of the Florida home designs by Taylor and Taylor. Limestone Quarries Beyond Texas Most of the limestone used in America does not come from Texas, however. Engineering expert Harald Greve tells us that almost 80% of the dimension limestone used in the United States is quarried in the state of Indiana. The colors of Indiana limestone, however, are generally off-white gray and buff. Limestone of different shades is found around the U.S. and throughout the world. Some architects have long favored designing with Travertine, a colorful form of limestone; and the popular Jura Stone, a limestone found in Germany, is so rich looking that its often called marble. Perhaps the greatest structures built with limestone blocks are not in the Western world at all — the Great Pyramids of Egypt. SUMMARY: Questions to Ask Before You Begin With Stone Achieving a look with stone involves answering many questions about color, finish, shape, and application. For exterior or interior use?For cladding, veneer, or structural use?Real (natural) stone or fake (i.e. faux) polyurethane-based foam panels?Thin stone veneer, cultured stone, or cast stone?How will the stone be applied? (dry stack or grout / mortar?)What finish type? (e.g., polished or rusticated?)What pattern type will the stones be laid on the wall?Where is the color in real natural stone and manufactured stone? Is the color only in the top layer?Do I need a mason or can I do it myself? Sources Barnes, Michael. We Built This City: Historical Austin Materials, May 16, 2013 at https://www.austin360.com/entertainment/built-this-city-historical-austin-materials/69u97kltXAmj36sOiCsIvN/ [accessed July 8, 2018]History, Austin White Lime Company at www.austinwhitelime.com/History of Cast Stone, Cast Stone Institute, http://www.caststone.org/history.htm [accessed July 7, 2018]Pieper, Richard. Preservation Brief 42, The Maintenance, Repair and Replacement of Historic Cast Stone, National Park Service, https://www.nps.gov/tps/how-to-preserve/briefs/42-cast-stone.htmGreve, Harald. Quarrying and fabricating Limestone, Masonry Construction, Publication #M99I017, September 1999, http://www.masonryconstruction.com/products/materials/quarrying-and-fabricating-limestone_o [PDF at www.masonryconstruction.com/Images/Quarrying%20and%20Fabricating%20Limestone_tcm68-1375976.pdf]All About Jura Limestone / Marble, Globalstoneportal, http://www.globalstoneportal.com/blog/analysis/all-about-jura-lime stone-marble [accessed June 5, 2016]